When last measured in 2018, the Namibian unemployment rate stood at 33.4%. The high level of unemployment in Namibia, particularly amongst the youth, is a matter of great concern. It is exacerbated by a demographic transition that increases the number of young people entering the labor market. Youth unemployment stood at 46.1% in 2018, almost three times higher than the global average of 17.2% (Republic of Namibia, 2023b). The high level of unemployment is primarily caused by the structure of the Namibian economy, but it is intensified by a confluence of global and local crises. Volume 3 of the Namibian Journal for Social Justice focuses on Employment, Livelihoods, and the World of Work. The livelihoods crisis replicates itself globally and has caused displacement and mass migration within and between countries and continents. Volume 3 explores different aspects of employment and livelihoods.
Uploaded date: 07 March, 2025
Three decades of outward-oriented and orthodox economic policies have left sub-Saharan Africa with a deepening crisis of unemployment, underemployment, and poverty. This article analyzes the low labor absorption capacity in Africa’s enclave economies, where a small, modern, formal capitalist sector exists alongside a larger traditional and informal sector. These sectors coexist in tenuous forms, while the vast majority of the labor force is trapped in pre-capitalist modes of production. Using secondary data, the article outlines the continued marginalization of sub-Saharan African countries in the global economy, pointing to a lack of diversification, the export of unprocessed natural resources, and the continued importation of processed goods. This is exacerbated by low levels of intra-African trade, Africa’s infrastructure gaps, and stagnant foreign direct investment flows, which have had minimal developmental impacts. Southern Africa will need developmental state interventions to break the limitations of the enclave economy.
Namibia is grappling with an unemployment crisis. The youth, women, and people living in rural areas and informal settlements are disproportionately affected by the scourge of unemployment. The profile of the unemployed is a reflection of the country’s racist colonial and apartheid-induced inequalities. Viewing the unemployment crisis through a human rights lens holds great potential. To begin, the right to work is recognized in several international treaties. This right is closely linked to other fundamental human rights, such as the right to human dignity, the right to non-discrimination, and the right to life. Importantly, an expansive interpretation of the right to life includes the right to livelihood.
In Namibia, informality is often used to refer to informal economies and settlements, which are rapidly overtaking formal urbanization processes. Informal actors and practices are continuously marginalized, and as a result, few efforts are made to understand their everyday socio-spatial practices for what they truly are. Instead, the non-compliance with the dominant colonial-modernist urban development paradigm is highlighted. This paper is based on ethnographic research from my PhD thesis, focusing on the case study of Herero Mall, an informal market in central Katutura (Lühl, 2020). The research was framed by the question of how traders inhabit Herero Mall socially, spatially, and economically, with a particular focus on the latter aspect. I develop the concept of a "popular economy" that thrives on diversity, interdependence, and spatial innovation, thus weaving inherited modernist urban fragments into a decolonizing urbanism that serves the majority.
In 2012, residents of Freedom Square in Gobabis, the capital of Omaheke Region in Namibia, began a ten-year-long process of in-situ upgrading, eventually becoming a pilot programme for the Flexible Land Tenure System (FLTS). This system was designed to offer tenure security for low-income communities. This study examines the impacts of the FLTS programme on social and economic livelihoods, while also exploring it through the lens of social justice. The study draws on data collected from residents, municipal officials, and NGO representatives. The FLTS has successfully provided residents with both de facto and legal tenure security, and a number of positive impacts on social livelihoods were observed during the study. However, the case for improvement in economic livelihoods is less clear.
Namibia's economic structures, which are largely based on extractive industries and have very limited local manufacturing, remained largely intact after independence. Key sectors, including agriculture, fishing, forestry, accommodation, food services, wholesale, retail trade, and private households, are characterized by high levels of informality and below-average wage levels. Trade unions in Namibia emerged in the 1980s, often with a strong focus on social movement unionism, combining struggles in the workplace with broader struggles for independence and democracy. However, after independence, unions shifted their focus towards a tripartite social dialogue model that mainly encompassed formal sector workers in larger public and private sector workplaces. As a result, unions have struggled to recruit informal and vulnerable workers, whose numbers have grown due to outsourcing and subcontracting.
This case study focuses on Ms. Tomas, an urban informal trader operating in Hakahana, part of Katutura, Windhoek. Born in Engela Village in the Ohangwena Region in northern Namibia and raised in Hakahana, Ms. Tomas has a strong connection to the community and a deep understanding of its socioeconomic dynamics. Like many others, she turned to informal trading as a means of livelihood due to the scarcity of formal job opportunities. After completing Grade 12 at Jakob Marengo Secondary School in Katutura, Ms. Tomas initially sought stable and well-paying jobs in the formal sector. Like many individuals, her aspiration was to secure formal employment that would offer financial stability and better prospects for her family. However, Ms. Tomas faced significant challenges in realizing this goal, including limited job opportunities and intense competition in the formal job market.
Magdalena Mwatilifange is a 29-year-old woman who lives in Okahandja Park, a settlement in the Khomas Region of Namibia, approximately 10 km north of the capital city, Windhoek. Born and raised in Onambome, the capital of the Okalongo constituency in Omusati Region, Magdalena attended Sheetekela Combined School and completed her secondary education. In search of better opportunities and a brighter future, she moved to Okahandja Park. However, upon arrival, she quickly realized that life in the settlement was not as easy or comfortable as she had hoped.
This study examines the intersection of climate change-driven migration, gender inequality, and urban poverty in Namibia, particularly focusing on women in Windhoek's informal settlements. While there is growing scholarship on the relationship between climate change and gender inequality, little research has been conducted on how climate-induced migration affects men and women differently, especially in the context of Namibia's high vulnerability to climate change. Through a hybrid methodological approach, this study reviews existing literature on climate change, migration, and urbanization, which is supplemented with face-to-face, semi-structured interviews with women who have migrated to Windhoek’s informal settlements due to climate change impacts. The research aims to better understand how these factors converge and how they impact the lives and livelihoods of women in these vulnerable communities.
This paper explores how migrant husbands maintain relationships with their wives who are left behind, focusing on a case study from Guyu Chelesa, a small irrigation community in southeastern Zimbabwe. While much attention has been given to how diasporans engage and thrive in their host countries, less has been studied about how they sustain connections with their spouses during prolonged separations. The research uses key informant interviews and a light-touch survey to explore the strategies employed by migrant spouses, specifically looking at the information and communication technologies (ICTs) used to maintain their bonds. The findings show that migrants and their spouses rely on various ICT platforms to preserve and rejuvenate their relationships. These technologies play a crucial role in bridging the gap created by physical distance and have significant implications for spousal intimacy in contexts of migration.
The increasing recognition of access to the internet and digital technologies as a human right emphasizes its importance for all citizens, not just the privileged few. In today's digital economy, it is crucial for economic participation, with projections indicating that 70% of new value in the next decade will be generated through digitally-enabled platforms (World Economic Forum, 2023). For sustainable and inclusive development, it is essential that technological progress benefits everyone equitably. Access to digital technologies serves as a lever for various aspects of life, including employment, public services, productive assets, financial services, education, and entrepreneurship. By ensuring that all people have access to these technologies, societies can promote social justice and provide opportunities for individuals to improve their livelihoods.
This case study focuses on Albertina (a pseudonym), a communal farmer in Namibia's Ohangwena Region. It delves into her experiences as she navigates the challenges and opportunities in agricultural practices within a communal setting. The study examines her background, the types of farming activities she engages in, the obstacles she faces, and the innovative strategies she employs to achieve sustainable agriculture. Through this case study, the complexities of communal farming in Namibia are explored, shedding light on the resilience and resourcefulness of individuals like Albertina in addressing the challenges of food security and rural development.
Mining is considered the backbone of Namibia's economy, deeply rooted in its history since the era of German colonial rule. The country's economic structure remains largely unchanged, as Namibia continues to export raw materials. More than 88% of mining operations in Namibia are owned and controlled by foreign companies (Nambinga, 2021). In recent years, mining activities have increasingly encroached on the small parcels of land allocated to indigenous black Namibians, whose ancestral lands were taken during the 1904–1908 genocide. Following the German colonial period, the South African colonial administration took control of the territory in 1920 under a League of Nations mandate and further intensified land dispossession by resettling impoverished white farmers in the area.
Green hydrogen (GH2) is gaining global attention as a potential game-changer in the energy transition. Often referred to as the "champagne of the energy transition" due to its rarity and high cost, it is also hailed by some as the magic weapon for decarbonising the planet and saving the climate. Enthusiasts argue that GH2 will usher in a new industrial revolution. However, some scientists caution that GH2 may not be the panacea for all climate-related challenges. Hydrogen (H2), the lightest element on the periodic table, is produced from renewable sources and is particularly suited for energy storage. It has the potential to replace fossil fuels as an energy source, offering a clean alternative for industries, transportation, and power generation. Despite its promise, GH2's widespread adoption is hampered by factors such as high production costs and infrastructure requirements.
The global buzz around green hydrogen has intensified, especially following the invasion of Ukraine, which has pushed energy security and diversification to the forefront of geopolitical discussions. Countries, particularly in Europe like Germany, are focused on the imminent decarbonisation of their industries. However, producing enough green hydrogen domestically from renewable sources is challenging due to the limited land available in densely populated countries. Countries like Germany, with a strong industrial base in steel production and the automotive sector, are reluctant to face the combined challenges of deindustrialisation and decarbonisation, viewing them as detrimental rather than beneficial. As a result, there has been a significant surge in interest in sourcing green hydrogen from remote locations, where large-scale renewable energy projects can be established. Importing hydrogen from these areas has become a strategic necessity to ensure national energy security, fulfilling the growing demand for decarbonisation without compromising industrial power.
In June 2023, Andy Gheorghiu, a Germany-based climate and environmental campaigner, visited Namibia and met with members of the Economic and Social Justice Trust in Windhoek. During his visit, he toured the township of Katutura, where he witnessed the stark economic challenges faced by the residents of a post-apartheid democracy. Despite the hardships, Gheorghiu also recognized the transformative potential within the community. Katutura, established during the apartheid era in 1961, was a forced settlement for Windhoek's black population. The name "Katutura," which means "The place where people do not want to live" or "We do not have a permanent habitation" in Otjiherero, reflects the township's history as a symbol of displacement and marginalization.
Namibia played a significant role as South Africa's testing ground for its apartheid policies. South Africa's colonial connection with Namibia, then known as South West Africa, is often overlooked or dismissed, even by historians of apartheid. Robert J. Gordon, a Namibian-born anthropologist, seeks to address this oversight in his book Ethnologists in Camouflage. In his work, Gordon emphasizes the importance of Namibia in shaping the development of apartheid. The book explores the role of 'native' experts, a central theme that underscores the colonial roots of apartheid in South Africa. Gordon critically examines South African imperialism, questioning the political logics and epistemic assumptions behind colonial knowledge production. Through these reflections, he brings to light the deep interconnectedness between the apartheid system and Namibia's colonial history.
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